TRAGEDY

-Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C.)

Aristotle was born in 384 B.C. in a small town called Stagria. His parents died when he was still young, and he was raised as an orphan. He is considered as one of the greatest and most influential of Plato’s students. He established his own school at Athens. Philosophically, the works of Aristotle reflects his gradual departure from the teachings of Plato and his adoption of a new approach. Unlike Plato, who delighted in abstract thought about a supra-sensible (supra=above) realm (region/a domain in which something is dominant) of forms, Aristotle was intensely concrete and practical, relying heavily upon sensory observation as a starting-point for philosophical reflection.

In his famous book Poetics (330 B.C.), Aristotle defines tragedy as an imitation of an action that is serious, complete and of a certain magnitude. Tragedy is an imitation of such average human world that is full of problems and struggles. It is a depiction of such human life that begins in union, love, happiness, reconciliation and unity; but ends in hatred, separation, sadness disintegration (decay/destroy) and fragmentation. In tragedy, the protagonist confronts continuous problems, and strongly struggles with opposite evil forces but finally there is sudden death, decay and destruction of protagonist. Aristotle has discussed some of the features to be a perfect tragedy as follows:

• The subject matter should be serious and moving.
• The protagonist must be from a noble family, higher background and greater potentiality without any serious moral mistakes but minor error of judgment.
• The plot of tragedy must have single plot.
• There should be classical unity of time, place and action.
• Tragedy must end in death, decay and destruction.

The main elements of tragedy are:

• Plot
• Character
• Setting
• Hamartia (tragic flaw/the character flaw or error of a tragic hero that leads to his downfall)
• Catharsis (the act of clearing yourself (or another) from some stigma or charge)
• Poetic Justice
• Spectacle (something or someone seen [especially a notable or unusual sight])
• Discovery and Sufferings

PLOT: According to Aristotle there should be one single plot in Tragedy. The whole actions and activities of plot must concentrate on single major character and his activities. Aristotle has defined plot as systematic, logical and chronological development of actions and activities. He explains five different parts of plot as: exposition; rising action (inciting force); climax; falling action; and resolution (denouncement).

Exposition is the initial introductory part of plot which introduces major characters, settings, subject matter, atmosphere etc. In rising action the major conflict of plot unfolds and inciting force instigates (prompts/inspires) the plot to drive towards climax. Climax is the most important and the highest part of plot from which the conflict takes certain turning mode or point. In it either protagonist defeats the antagonistic force or gets defeated. In climax the protagonist realizes the cause of conflict. Falling Action is short and quick part of plot between climax and resolution. Resolution or denouement is the final and conclusive part of plot. In it there is final management of whole actions of the play. There is total collapse of dramatic effect in the audience.

CHARACTER: For Aristotle, character is another element of tragedy. Characters are those human beings who are made up of words and speech, and perform certain role given by the dramatist. The characters in a drama don’t carry their own identity and personality, rather they are given role, responsibility and personality. The process of giving identity to the characters is called characterization.

Protagonist is the main/major character. The protagonist of tragedy must be highly potential without any serious moral or physical fault. The protagonist must be from noble family. His fall, failure and final death must happens because of his common error of judgment.

SETTING: Setting is a unity of time, place and action. For Aristotle, a good tragedy must complete whole actions and events of drama within 24 hours or single revolution of sun. Likewise, the whole actions and events of drama must be acted in only one place. For e.g. the actions in Oedipus Rex happen in only one place i.e. palace of king Oedipus. Unity of action refers to whole events and actions concentrating on single major character.

HAMARTIA (Tragic Flaw): The error of judgment or minor mistakes in protagonist bringing fall, decay and destruction is called hamartia or tragic flaw. Though such hero doesn't have serious moral weaknesses, minor error of judgment remains the cause of his total destruction.

CATHARSIS: Catharsis refers to the feeling of pity and fear created by the fall and destruction of hero. It is purgation of inner emotional sympathy of readers upon the destruction and death of hero. While reading the tragedy, the readers assimilate themselves in the position of and to the condition of protagonist. They feel that whatever is done or faced by protagonist are done and faced by them. That’s why the sudden failure, destruction and defeat of protagonist create the feeling of pity and fear in audiences which is called catharsis.

POETIC JUSTICE: Poetic Justice refers to the concept of reward and punishment in the drama. According to Aristotle, good and virtuous characters must be rewarded and bad characters or evil forces should be given punishment they deserve.

SPECTACLE: Spectacle is theatrical equipment like sound, light, gas, masks, and dresses etc. which create emotional and aesthetic atmosphere in the theater.

DISCOVERY & SUFFERING: In climax, protagonist realizes the error of judgment committed by him. The moment of self-realization by protagonist about his mistake is called discovery. The mental pain and agony created in protagonist after discovery is called suffering.

Writing and Discussion

Q. In his discussion of tragedy, Aristotle emphasizes the importance of plot. He feels that good tragedies follow the basic plot. He feels that good tragedies follow a basic plot structure and that those tragedies that deviate significantly from this basic plot will affect the audience less profoundly. Select a specific genre (or type) of literature or film (for example horror film) and discuss whether a basic plot is repeated in most effective works that fall into this category.

In the essay Tragedy which has been taken out from Poetics written by Aristotle, the writer talks about the importance of plot. The plot of tragedy is structured in such a way that the withdrawal of one action destroys the whole plot.

Plot is the soul of tragedy. Tragic drama imitates the action which is complete in itself. It means there has to be unity of actions in the plotline of the tragedy. If the plot contains more than one action, it cannot create profound effect upon the audience, in the plot must be structured to pity and fear. The hero knowingly and unknowingly commits mistake because of which he has to suffer. Suffering leads to discovery about one-self and about other people. In some of the dramas there is reversal of situation while ends happily, it doesn't arouse pity and fear. So, the plot of drama must be complex and should end either in death or in separation.

In the drama Macbeth, the hero Macbeth knowingly commits mistake but finally he gets knowledge about the mistake committed by him. The audience or reader feels pity and fear. The plot of the drama contains one single action. Unity of action is the basic requirement of tragic plot. This drama as well has the unity of action containing all the structural elements of tragedy. So, this is a perfect drama.

According to Aristotle the plot must represent one action with its several incidents. All these incidents are closely connected. If any-one action is taken out, it destroys the whole.

Q. Why does Aristotle argue that it is important for a tragedy to arouse pity and fear within a family? Why would this be more powerful than arousing pity and fear about the actions among a group of friends?

In the essay Tragedy, Aristotle defines tragedy, its plot, pity and fear, and many other aspects. Tragedy arouses pity and fear among the audiences or readers.

Tragedy arouses pity and fear showing the incidence very similar to the incidence of real life situation. Pity is created due to undeserved misfortune faced by the hero. The hero unknowingly commits mistake because of which there is long suffering. Readers or audiences feel that the hero doesn't deserve the punishment. Because of this, there is the sense of sympathy. Similarly, basic tragic dramas contain fear. Fear emerges thinking that we might face the same misfortune in our practical life. Because of pity and fear, there is purgation and purification of human mind and soul. The actions are likely to occur among us. It is so because activities in real life situation, and activities in drama are similar. They are similar because a drama imitates the real world. The actions arouse pity and fear because of discovery and reversal. In day to day events, our expectations are not violated but in drama there is the presence of unexpected events. This creates pity and fear among the audience or readers.

In this way, Aristotle values pity and fear for the reason that dramatic work manages pity and fear in unexpected way. Such incidents have the very great effect on the mind of the readers.

Q. Describe Aristotle Rhetoric.

Rhetoric is an art of persuasion. The essayist tries to make the essay effective by means of rhetoric. Exploration of ideas in the suggestive form make the essay Tragedy effective.

Definition is the most important writing technique used by Aristotle. Definition is long and simple explanation of difficult terms and ideas. The major and difficult points like tragedy and its elements like plot, character, hamartia, poetic justice, etc. have been defined in the essay. For example hamartia has been defined as common error of judgment, committed by the protagonist.

Exploration of idea is another writing device used by Aristotle. He, for the first time defines tragedy, epic, comedy, music etc. he is such an original thinker whose exploration of ideas established new system and tradition about study of literary criticism. In this essay, the concept of tragedy and elements of tragedy are original and newly explored ideas in whole literary criticism.

Reference & Example is another technical device of Aristotle. To justify his concept of good tragedy, he has brought the example of Oedipus Rex, Othello, and Iliad etc. Likewise, use of scientific terms also serves as technical device. Aristotle was a scientist, a biologist etc. the influence of scientific bent of mind can be seen in the essay. He has used some scientific terms in the essay. While talking about unity of time he writes, “A drama should be acted within single revolution of sun.”

Important Points:

• Aristotle emphasized on the Unity of Action in Tragedy.
• He differentiates poetry from history: historic truth is proved by evidences while poetic truth is proved by philosophical analysis.
• His main focus is on the plot which he compares to a living organism. There are two types of plot: simple and complex.
• Simple plot occurs due to a change in the hero’s fate without any reversal and discovery: complex plot occurs due to the change either by reversal or discovery or both as in Oedipus Rex.
• In a great tragedy the cause of the hero’s downfall must lie in the protagonist’s fault, which is called tragic flaw.