Chapter 8: Cultural and Ideological Turns

Chapter 8: Cultural and Ideological Turns

●     The cultural turn and the ideological turn are two important developments in translation studies that have occurred since the 1980s. The cultural turn is a shift in focus from the linguistic aspects of translation to the cultural and ideological aspects. This shift was influenced by the rise of cultural studies, which emphasizes the role of culture in shaping our understanding of the world. The ideological turn is a further development of the cultural turn, which focuses on the role of ideology in translation. Ideology is a system of beliefs and values that shapes our understanding of the world. It can be used to justify or legitimize certain practices, including translation.

●     The cultural and ideological turns have had a significant impact on translation studies. They have led to a more nuanced (refined) understanding of the translation process, and they have also raised important questions about the role of translation in society. For example, the cultural turn has led to a focus on the ways in which translation can be used to transmit cultural values and ideologies from one culture to another. The ideological turn has led to a focus on the ways in which translation can be used to promote or challenge dominant ideologies.

●     Some of the key concepts associated with the cultural and ideological turns in translation studies are:

○     Intertextuality: The idea that texts are always in dialogue with other texts, both within the same culture and across cultures. This means that translations are not simply copies of the original texts, but they are also influenced by the translator's own cultural background and the target language culture.

○     Ideological manipulation: The idea that translations can be used to promote or challenge dominant ideologies. This can be done through a variety of strategies, such as choosing certain words or phrases, or omitting or adding information.

○     Rewriting: The idea that translation is a form of rewriting, in which the translator creates a new text that is tailored to the target language culture. This is not necessarily a negative thing, as it can allow for the translation of texts that would not otherwise be accessible to readers in the target language.

○     Power relations: The idea that translation is a site of power relations, in which the translator has the power to shape the way that a text is understood by readers in the target language. This power can be used for good or for ill, depending on the translator's own ideological commitments.

●     To conclude, the cultural turn and the ideological turn are two significant shifts in focus in translation studies. The cultural turn emphasizes the importance of understanding the cultural context of translation, while the ideological turn emphasizes the role of translation in shaping power relations and social and political identities.

1.    Translation as Rewriting: The idea of translation as rewriting was developed by André Lefevere, who sees translation as an act carried out under the influence of particular categories and norms constituent to systems in a society. Lefevere argues that translations are not simply copies of the original texts, but they are also products of the translator's own cultural background and the target language culture. In other words, translations are not simply translations, but they are also rewritings.

●     Lefevere's theory of translation as rewriting is based on the following assumptions:

➢   Texts are always embedded in a particular culture.

➢   Translations are always produced for a particular audience in a particular culture.

➢   Translators are always influenced by their own cultural background and the target language culture.

➢   Translations are always shaped by the norms and conventions of the target language culture.

●     As a result of these assumptions, Lefevere argues that translations are never completely faithful to the original texts. Instead, translations are always rewritings, in which the translator makes choices about what to include, what to exclude, and how to express the meaning of the original text in the target language. These choices are always influenced by the translator's own cultural background and the target language culture.

●     The idea of translation as rewriting has been influential in translation studies, and it has helped to challenge the traditional view of translation as a neutral process of transferring meaning from one language to another. Lefevere's theory has also helped to raise awareness of the role of ideology in translation. Translations are not simply neutral products of the translation process, but they are also products of the translator's own ideological commitments.

●     Some examples of how translation can be seen as a form of rewriting are presented here:

➢   A translator might choose to omit certain passages from a text if they are considered to be offensive or culturally insensitive in the target language culture.

➢   A translator might choose to add certain passages to a text if they are considered to be important for understanding the meaning of the text in the target language culture.

➢   A translator might choose to change the order of the words in a sentence if it makes more sense in the target language.

➢   A translator might choose to use different words in a sentence if they have a more precise meaning in the target language.

●     These are just a few examples of how translation can be seen as a form of rewriting. The specific choices that a translator makes will always depend on the particular text, the translator's own cultural background, and the target language culture.

●     To summarize, translation as rewriting suggests that translation is not just a transfer of meaning from one language to another, but rather a process of rewriting the original text in a new language. The translator's role is to rewrite the original text as they engage in the act of cultural and ideological transportation and distort the source text to accommodate it into the target text.

2.    Translation and Gender: The interest of cultural studies in translation inevitably took translation studies away from purely linguistic analysis and brought it into contact with other disciplines.

●     Sherry Simon, in her Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission (1996), criticizes translation studies for often using the term culture ‘as if it referred to an obvious and unproblematic reality’. Lefevere, for example, had defined it as simply ‘the environment of a literary system’.

●     Simon approaches translation from a gender-studies angle. She sees a language of sexism in translation studies, with its images of dominance, fidelity (loyalty), faithfulness and betrayal.

●     The role of gender in translation has been a topic of interest in translation studies since the 1980s. This is due in part to the rise of feminist theory, which has challenged the traditional view of language as a neutral medium. Feminists have argued that language is not neutral, but rather it is gendered. This means that language reflects and reinforces the dominant gender ideologies in a particular culture.

●     Translation is a process that involves the transfer of meaning from one language to another. However, it is not simply a matter of transferring words from one language to another. Translation is also a process of interpretation, in which the translator must make choices about how to represent the meaning of the original text in the target language. These choices are often influenced by the translator's own gender identity and the gender ideologies of the target language culture.

●     For example, a translator might choose to use different pronouns when translating a text from a language that has gendered pronouns to a language that does not. In English, for example, we have the pronouns "he" and "she" to refer to people of different genders. However, in many other languages, there is only one pronoun for both genders. When translating a text from a language with gendered pronouns to a language without gendered pronouns, the translator must make a choice about how to represent the gender of the people in the text. They could choose to use the same pronoun for both genders, or they could choose to use different pronouns to indicate the gender of the people in the text. The choice that the translator makes will be influenced by their own gender identity and the gender ideologies of the target language culture.

●     The role of gender in translation is a complex and nuanced (significance) issue. There is no one right way to translate a text that deals with gender. The translator must make choices that are appropriate for the particular text, the target language culture, and their own gender identity.

●     Here are some key points to elaborate on this concept:

➢   Feminist translation theory: Feminist translation theory is a branch of translation studies that focuses on the role of gender in translation. It aims to challenge the patriarchal hegemony of translation and to promote gender equality in the translation process. Feminist translation theory emphasizes the importance of understanding the cultural and social contexts of the source and target languages and the role of translation in shaping gender identity

➢   Gender and translation choices: Studies have shown that social gender assignment influences translation choices. For example, translators may use different words or expressions when translating texts written by men or women. Gender bias in machine translation has also been identified, which can harm users and society at large

➢   Translating gender: Translating gender is a complex process that involves understanding the cultural and social contexts of the source and target languages. It requires translators to be aware of the ways in which gender is represented in different languages and to be sensitive to the challenges that this poses to translation. Translating gender also involves identifying where different mechanisms of gender discrimination lie in translation and challenging them.

➢   Feminist translation studies: Feminist translation studies is a field that investigates translation theories and practices carried out from multiple feminist perspectives. It responds to challenges met by women in different cultures and promotes gender equality in the translation process. Feminist translation studies emphasizes the importance of understanding the cultural and social contexts of the source and target languages and the role of translation in shaping gender identity.

●     In conclusion, translation and gender in translation studies explores the role of gender in translation and how it affects the translation process. It involves understanding the cultural and social contexts of the source and target languages, challenging gender discrimination in translation, and promoting gender equality in the translation process. Feminist translation theory and feminist translation studies are important branches of translation studies that focus on the role of gender in translation.

3.    Postcolonial Translation Theory: In Translation and Gender, Sherry Simon’s focus centers on underlining the importance of the cultural turn in translation. She insists on how “contemporary feminist translation has made gender the site of a consciously transformative project, one which reframes conditions of textual authority” and summarizes the contribution of cultural studies to translation.

●     In subsequent years, it is in fact postcolonialism that has attracted the attention of many translation studies researchers. Although its specific scope is sometimes undefined, postcolonialism is generally used to cover studies of the history of the former colonies, studies of powerful European empires, resistance to the colonialist powers and, more broadly, studies of the effect of the imbalance of power relations between colonized and colonizer.

●     Postcolonial theorists argue that translation has been used as a tool of colonialism to control and dominate colonized peoples. They also argue that translation can be used to resist colonialism and promote decolonization.

●     One of the key concepts in postcolonial translation theory is the idea of translation as appropriation. This refers to the process of taking a text from a colonized culture and translating it into the language of the colonizer. The act of appropriation can be seen as a form of cultural imperialism, as it allows the colonizer to control the meaning of the text and to impose their own cultural values on the colonized people.

●     Another key concept in postcolonial translation theory is the idea of translation as resistance. This refers to the process of translating texts from a colonized culture in a way that challenges the dominant ideology of the colonizer. Translation can be used to resist colonialism by giving voice to the colonized people and by challenging the stereotypes and misrepresentations that are often used to justify colonialism.

●     Postcolonial translation theory has been influential in raising awareness of the role of translation in colonialism and postcolonialism. It has also helped to challenge the traditional view of translation as a neutral process of transferring meaning from one language to another. Postcolonial theorists argue that translation is always political, and that it can be used to promote or challenge dominant ideologies.

●     Some of the key figures in postcolonial translation theory are:

➢   Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak: Spivak is a postcolonial theorist who has written extensively on the role of translation in colonialism and postcolonialism. She is particularly known for her concept of "strategic essentialism," which refers to the use of essentialized identities as a political strategy.

➢   Lawrence Venuti: Venuti is a translation theorist who has written extensively on the politics of translation. He argues that translation is always political, and that it can be used to promote or challenge dominant ideologies. He is particularly known for his concept of "foreignizing translation," which refers to a translation that highlights the differences between the source language and the target language.

➢   Susan Bassnett: Bassnett is a translation theorist who has written extensively on postcolonial translation. She argues that translation can be used to resist colonialism and promote decolonization. She is particularly known for her work on the translation of Indian literature into English.

●     Postcolonial translation theory is a growing field of study. It is a complex and challenging field, but it is also a field that is essential for understanding the role of translation in colonialism and postcolonialism. Here are some key points to elaborate on this concept:

➢   Power relations: The central intersection of translation studies and postcolonial theory is that of power relations. Postcolonial translation theory emphasizes the importance of understanding the power dynamics between colonized and colonizer and how these dynamics affect the translation process. It highlights the role of translation in shaping cultural identity and the ways in which translation can be used to promote or challenge dominant ideologies

➢   Hybridity: Postcolonial translation theory is concerned with hybridity, which refers to the mixing of different cultures and languages. Hybridity is seen as a positive aspect of postcolonial translation, as it allows for the creation of new cultural forms that challenge dominant cultural norms.

➢   Resistance: Postcolonial translation theory also emphasizes the role of translation in resistance to colonialism and the colonialist powers. It highlights the ways in which translation can be used to promote cultural and linguistic diversity and to challenge dominant cultural norms.

➢   Historical context: Postcolonial translation theory emphasizes the importance of understanding the historical context of translation and the ways in which translation has been used to promote colonialism and imperialism. It highlights the need to challenge dominant cultural norms and to promote cultural and linguistic diversity in the translation process.

●     To sum up, postcolonial translation theory is a concept in translation studies that explores the relationship between translation and the social practices resulting from colonialism and postcolonialism. It emphasizes the importance of understanding power relations, hybridity, resistance, and historical context in the translation process. Postcolonial translation theory highlights the need to challenge dominant cultural norms and to promote cultural and linguistic diversity in the translation process

4.    The Ideologies of the Theorists: One consequence of this widening of the scope of translation studies is that it has brought together scholars from a wide range of backgrounds. Yet it is important to remember that theorists themselves have their own ideologies and agendas that drive their own criticisms. These are what Brownlie calls ‘committed approaches’ to translation studies. Thus, the feminist translators of the Canadian project are very open about flaunting (display proudly) their manipulation of texts. Sherry Simon is also explicit in stating that the aim of her book on gender and translation is ‘to cast the widest net around issues of gender in translation ... and, through gender, to move translation studies closer to a cultural studies framework’.The ideologies of the theorists in postcolonial translation theory are diverse and complex. However, there are some common themes that emerge from their work.

●     One common theme is the idea that translation is always political. This means that translations are not simply neutral products of the translation process, but they are also products of the translator's own ideological commitments. The translator's choices about what to include, what to exclude, and how to express the meaning of the original text in the target language are always influenced by their own ideological beliefs.

●     Another common theme is the idea that translation can be used to promote or challenge dominant ideologies. Translation can be used to promote dominant ideologies by reinforcing the values and beliefs of the dominant group. However, translation can also be used to challenge dominant ideologies by giving voice to the marginalized and by challenging the stereotypes and misrepresentations that are often used to justify oppression.

●     The ideologies of the theorists in postcolonial translation theory are shaped by their own experiences and their own understanding of the world. They are also shaped by the particular texts that they are working with. For example, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's work on translation is influenced by her own experiences as a postcolonial scholar and her work on the subaltern (inferior in rank or status). Lawrence Venuti's work on translation is influenced by his own experiences as a translator and his work on the politics of translation. Susan Bassnett's work on translation is influenced by her own experiences as a translator and her work on postcolonial translation.

●     The ideologies of the theorists in postcolonial translation theory are important because they help us to understand the role of translation in society. Translation is not simply a neutral process of transferring meaning from one language to another. It is also a political act that can be used to promote or challenge dominant ideologies. The ideologies of the theorists in postcolonial translation theory help us to understand the ways in which translation can be used to resist colonialism and promote decolonization.

5.    Translation, Ideology and Power in Other Contexts: The question of power in postcolonial translation studies, and Lefevere’s work on the ideological component of rewriting, has led to the examination of power and ideology in other contexts where translation is involved.

●     Translation can be seen as a powerful tool that can be used to promote or challenge certain ideologies, or to gain or maintain power. However, it is clear that translation is always a political act that has the potential to shape our understanding of the world.

●     The ideologies of the theorists in translation studies are diverse and complex. They emphasize the importance of understanding the cultural and social contexts of the source and target languages, the role of power and manipulation in the translation process, and the political nature of translation. They also highlight the ways in which translation can be used to promote or challenge dominant ideologies and shape cultural identity.

●     Research has focused on the disparity (gap) of power between languages, most specifically on the growth of English as a lingua franca (a common language used by speakers of different languages) globally.

●     Language imbalance has been a constant backdrop to translation through the ages, with Classical languages such as Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit having a hegemonic (the dominance or leadership of one social group or nation over others) influence on the translation of sacred scriptures and scientific texts.

●     More recent political developments include the creation of Bahasa Malaysia as a language distinct from Bahasa Indonesia to promote national unity in Malaysia, the promotion of ‘lesser-spoken’ languages such as Irish and Basque in Europe, and the division of Serbo-Croat into distinct languages (Serbian and Croatian) for political and identitary reasons.

●     Recent research has also begun to pay more attention to the fact that much translation takes place informally between co-existing linguistic communities in multilingual cities.

●     Sherry Simon (2012) considers the cases of linguistically divided "dual cities", where "two historically rooted language communities ... feel a sense of entitlement to the same territory". She cites Barcelona, Calcutta, Montreal, and Trieste as examples.

●     Singapore is a slightly different example, with four official languages (English, Malay, Mandarin, and Tamil). However, English dominates in the public realm (law, government, etc.) even though Mandarin is the first language for half the population.

●     Lee (2013) investigates the dynamics of translation for the Chinese community in Singapore and what this reveals about cultural identity and power relations.

Works Cited

Aksoy, Berrin, and Can Yücel. “Translation as Rewriting.” Translation Journal, https://translationjournal.net/journal/17turkey.htm. Accessed 8 August 2023.

MAMBROL, NASRULLAH. “Postcolonial Translation Theory – Literary Theory and Criticism.” Literary Theory and Criticism, 11 January 2018, https://literariness.org/2018/01/11/postcolonial-translation-theory/. Accessed 8 August 2023.

Munday, Jeremy, et al. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2022.

“(PDF) Introducing Translation Studies | Erna Asaturova.” Academia.edu, https://www.academia.edu/9390044/Introducing_Translation_Studies. Accessed 8 August 2023.

“TRANSLATION AS REWRITING:.” Nordic Journal of Renaissance Studies, https://www.njrs.dk/14_2018/02_forrai_rewriting.pdf. Accessed 8 August 2023.

 

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